Table 2 Baseline characteristics of 1244 participants of study population across tertiles (T) of the empirical dietary index for hyperinsulinemia

 Age ± years

45.7 ± 13.5

42.2 ± 12.5

40.9 ± 12.4

 < 0.001

 Male (%)

155 (37.3)

177 (42.7)

199 (48.1)

0.008

 Body mass index (kg/m2)

27.8 ± 4.9

27.6 ± 5.1

26.8 ± 4.7

0.004

 Physical activity (MET-h/week)

27.7 (11.7–55.5)

25.3 (9.6–55.5)

24.3 (11.3–49.0)

0.754

 Current smokers (%)

35 (8.4)

53 (12.8)

63 (15.2)

0.009

 Education Level (graduated), (%)

92 (22.2)

112 (27.0)

116 (28.0)

0.163

 Hypertension, n (%)

71 (17.1)

60 (14.5)

41 (9.9)

0.010

 Diabetes, n (%)

44 (10.6)

31 (7.5)

20 (4.8)

0.008

Biochemical data

 Fasting serum insulin(mU/mL)

9.29 ± 5.40

9.19 ± 6.38

9.06 ± 5.22

0.570

 Fasting blood sugar (mmol/l)

5.23 ± 1.57

5.15 ± 1.45

5.00 ± 1.14

0.017

 HOMA-IR

1.80 (1.25–2.69)

1.70 (1.19–2.58)

1.69 (1.15–2.50)

0.190

 HOMA-B

117.2 (79.2–167.1)

118.8 (81.9–165.6)

127.0 (81.9- 177.8)

0.687

 HOMA-S

65.2 ± 42.2

67.2 ± 44.6

68.0 ± 40.6

0.391

 Hyperinsulinemia, n (%)

123 (29.6)

130 (31.3)

136 (32.9)

0.608

 Insulin resistance, n (%)

186 (44.8)

165 (39.8)

162 (39.1)

0.197

 Insulin insensitivity, n (%)

187 (45.1)

166 (40.0)

162 (39.1)

0.181

 β-cell dysfunction, n (%)

100 (24.1)

88 (21.2)

88 (21.3)

0.527

Nutrient intake

 Energy(Kcal/d)

1990 ± 632

2162 ± 701

2566 ± 682

 < 0.001

 Carbohydrate(% of energy)

59.9 ± 7.2

58.4 ± 6.8

55.2 ± 7.0

 < 0.001

 Protein(% of energy)

13.4 ± 2.1

13.9 ± 2.3

13.7 ± 2.6

0.056

 Fat(% of energy)

29.4 ± 7.0

30.4 ± 6.7

33.4 ± 6.9

 < 0.001

Food groups

 Low-fat dairy (serving/d)

0.86 ± 0.73

1.01 ± 0.79

1.18 ± 0.94

 < 0.001

 High-fat dairy (serving/d)

1.33 ± 1.00

1.01 ± 0.67

1.15 ± 0.80

0.030

 Refined grain(serving/d)

4.86 ± 3.77

5.06 ± 3.71

5.81 ± 3.71

 < 0.001

 Red and processed meat(serving/d)

0.54 ± 0.41

0.80 ± 0.61

1.13 ± 0.98

 < 0.001

 Fruits(serving/d)

3.48 ± 2.92

3.24 ± 2.32

3.25 ± 2.65

0.288

 Vegetables(serving/d)

2.44 ± 1.51

3.02 ± 1.94

3.39 ± 2.54

 < 0.001

Insulin scores

 EDIH

0.0 ± 0.06

0.14 ± 0.03

0.45 ± 0.23

 < 0.001

 ELIH

1.27 ± 0.27

1.34 ± 0.27

1.48 ± 0.30

 < 0.001