Table 4 Combined effect of pre-pregnancy BMI and GWG trajectory on the risk of adverse offspring outcomes

Macrosomia

 Underweight or Normal weight

Non-excessive GWG

Ref

Ref

Ref

 Underweight or Normal weight

Excessive GWG

2.53 (1.65–3.86)

2.48 (1.62–3.80)

2.20 (1.42–3.40)

 Underweight or Normal weight

Excessive early GWG

1.47 (0.57–3.75)

1.43 (0.56–3.67)

1.36 (0.53–3.52)

 Overweight/Obese

Non-excessive GWG

2.38 (1.67–3.38)

2.40 (1.68–3.41)

2.25 (1.56–3.23)

 Overweight/Obese

Excessive GWG

4.68 (3.25–6.73)

4.62 (3.21–6.65)

3.89 (2.67–5.67)

 Overweight/Obese

Excessive early GWG

4.86 (2.63–8.99)

4.80 (2.59–8.89)

4.37 (2.33–8.20)

LGA

 Underweight or Normal weight

Non-excessive GWG

Ref

Ref

Ref

 Underweight or Normal weight

Excessive GWG

1.44 (1.07–1.93)

1.42 (1.06–1.91)

1.31 (0.96–1.77)

 Underweight or Normal weight

Excessive early GWG

1.75 (1.02–2.99)

1.74 (1.02–2.99)

1.69 (0.98–2.91)

 Overweight/Obese

Non-excessive GWG

1.75 (1.40–2.20)

1.68 (1.33–2.11)

1.61 (1.27–2.04)

 Overweight/Obese

Excessive GWG

2.90 (2.22–3.77)

2.86 (2.19–3.72)

2.51 (1.91–3.29)

 Overweight/Obese

Excessive early GWG

2.51 (1.53–4.12)

2.44 (1.48–4.01)

2.26 (1.36–3.74)

Cesarean section

 Underweight or Normal weight

Non-excessive GWG

Ref

Ref

Ref

 Underweight or Normal weight

Excessive GWG

1.50 (1.16–1.95)

1.73 (1.31–2.29)

1.97 (1.47–2.63)

 Underweight or Normal weight

Excessive early GWG

1.15 (0.69–1.94)

1.36 (0.78–2.36)

1.38 (0.79–2.43)

 Overweight/Obese

Non-excessive GWG

1.90 (1.55–2.33)

1.65 (1.33–2.05)

1.56 (1.25–1.95)

 Overweight/Obese

Excessive GWG

1.91 (1.49–2.46)

2.13 (1.62–2.80)

2.20 (1.66–2.91)

 Overweight/Obese

Excessive early GWG

2.28 (1.42–3.67)

2.44 (1.47–4.05)

2.20 (1.30–3.72)

BMI-for-age at 40 months >  + 2SD

 Underweight or Normal weight

Non-excessive GWG

Ref

Ref

Ref

 Underweight or Normal weight

Excessive GWG

1.45 (0.84–2.50)

1.43 (0.83–2.47)

1.38 (0.80–2.40)

 Underweight or Normal weight

Excessive early GWG

1.04 (0.32–3.44)

1.01 (0.31–3.33)

0.96 (0.29–3.19)

 Overweight/Obese

Non-excessive GWG

1.19 (0.76–1.87)

1.28 (0.81–2.02)

1.18 (0.74–1.89)

 Overweight/Obese

Excessive GWG

2.74 (1.76–4.26)

2.77 (1.78–4.31)

2.64 (1.69–4.13)

 Overweight/Obese

Excessive early GWG

1.71 (0.66–4.42)

1.75 (0.67–4.54)

1.66 (0.63–4.34)