Table 3 Association between GWG trajectory groups and risk of adverse perinatal and offspring outcomes at 40 months

Macrosomia

 Non-excessive GWG

Ref

Ref

Ref

 Excessive GWG

2.62 (1.99–3.47)

2.01 (1.51–2.69)

1.83 (1.35–2.47)

 Excessive early GWG

2.25 (1.37–3.74)

1.84 (1.10–3.07)

1.79 (1.06–3.01)

LGA

 Non-excessive GWG

Ref

Ref

Ref

 Excessive GWG

1.77 (1.44–2.16)

1.45 (1.17–1.79)

1.33 (1.07–1.66)

 Excessive early GWG

1.78 (1.24–2.57)

1.51 (1.04–2.20)

1.48 (1.01–2.17)

LBW

 Non-excessive GWG

Ref

Ref

Ref

 Excessive GWG

1.02 (0.62–1.67)

1.03 (0.62–1.71)

1.15 (0.67–1.95)

 Excessive early GWG

0.20 (0.03–1.46)

0.21 (0.03–1.49)

0.22 (0.03–1.61)

SGA

 Non-excessive GWG

Ref

Ref

Ref

 Excessive GWG

0.54 (0.24–1.20)

0.60 (0.26–1.35)

0.70 (0.31–1.62)

 Excessive early GWG

0.65 (0.16–2.71)

0.72 (0.17–3.01)

0.81 (0.19–3.42)

Preterm

 Non-excessive GWG

Ref

Ref

Ref

 Excessive GWG

1.41 (0.96–2.07)

1.38 (0.93–2.05)

1.54 (1.02–2.33)

 Excessive early GWG

0.75 (0.30–1.87)

0.74 (0.30–1.87)

0.78 (0.31–1.97)

Cesarean section

 Non-excessive GWG

Ref

Ref

Ref

 Excessive GWG

1.41 (1.17–1.70)

1.46 (1.18–1.79)

1.64 (1.32–2.03)

 Excessive early GWG

1.37 (0.96–1.94)

1.43 (0.98–2.09)

1.42 (0.96–2.09)

BMI-for-age at 40 months >  + 2SD

 Non-excessive GWG

Ref

Ref

Ref

 Excessive GWG

1.99 (1.40–2.84)

1.66 (1.15–2.41)

1.66 (1.14–2.42)

 Excessive early GWG

1.31 (0.62–2.77)

1.14 (0.53–2.43)

1.13 (0.53–2.42)

BMI-for-age at 40 months < -2SD

 Non-excessive GWG

Ref

Ref

Ref

 Excessive GWG

0.63 (0.34–1.18)

0.75 (0.40–1.42)

0.79 (0.42–1.52)

 Excessive early GWG

0.23 (0.03–1.68)

0.27 (0.04–1.94)

0.26 (0.04–1.91)