Table 1 Characteristics of study participants at baseline and at re-examination

Men, n (%)

319 (36.8)

177 (43.5)

Age, years

57.0 ± 7.04

58.9 ± 7.07^**

59.1 ± 6.80

61.1 ± 6.83^**

Body mass index, kg/m²

23.7 ± 3.17

24.0 ± 3.31^**

24.3 ± 2.94

24.5 ± 2.98^**

Total body fat percentage, %

27.4 ± 8.18

27.5 ± 8.35

27.6 ± 7.97

27.6 ± 8.11

Skeletal muscle mass index, %

32.0 ± 5.57

31.8 ± 5.70^*

32.1 ± 5.51

32.0 ± 5.57

Blood pressure, mmHg

 Systolic

128 (118–140)

129 (117–141)

130 (120–144)

132 (122–145)

 Diastolic

79.0 (72.0–85.3)

77.0 (70.0–84.0)^**

80.0 (73.0–87.0)

78.0 (72.0–86.0)^**

Fasting plasma glucose, mmol/L

5.12 ± 0.44

5.66 ± 0.56^**

5.35 ± 0.64

6.07 ± 0.72^**

2-h plasma glucose, mmol/L

6.05 ± 1.09

6.82 ± 1.91^**

8.81 ± 1.23

8.64 ± 2.39

Glycated hemoglobin A1c, %

5.50 ± 0.33

5.65 ± 0.40^**

5.67 ± 0.35

5.81 ± 0.42^**

Total cholesterol, mmol/L

5.13 ± 0.90

5.40 ± 1.02^**

5.10 ± 0.89

5.38 ± 0.97^**

Triglyceride, mmol/L

1.24 (0.87–1.76)

1.33 (0.95–1.93)^**

1.46 (0.97–2.04)

1.52 (1.10–2.23)^**

High-density lipoprotein cholesterol, mmol/L

1.39 ± 0.35

1.45 ± 0.36^**

1.32 ± 0.33

1.38 ± 0.34^**

Low-density lipoprotein cholesterol, mmol/L

3.11 ± 0.77

3.26 ± 0.87^**

3.13 ± 0.75

3.25 ± 0.81^**

Smoking, n (%)

175 (20.2)

161 (18.5)^*

76 (18.7)

76 (18.7)

Alcohol use, n (%)

94 (10.8)

88 (10.1)

43 (10.6)

44 (10.8)

Physical activity, n (%)

 Light

157 (18.1)

163 (18.8)^*

69 (17.0)

62 (15.2)

 Moderate

386 (44.5)

437 (50.3)^*

212 (52.1)

237 (58.3)

 High

325 (37.4)

268 (30.9)^*

126 (30.9)

108 (26.5)

Skeletal muscle mass change, kg

− 0.13 (− 1.35–0.97)

− 0.09 (− 1.39–1.09)

Skeletal muscle mass index change, %

− 0.44 (− 4.37–3.12)

− 0.33 (− 4.42–3.40)