|
Age ± years
|
42.3 ± 14.1
|
43.1 ± 12.6
|
43.7 ± 12.0
|
0.132
|
|
Male (%)
|
195 (47.3)
|
183 (44.5)
|
152 (37.0)
|
0.008
|
|
Body mass index (kg/m2)
|
23.5 ± 2.7
|
26.9 ± 2.7
|
31.8 ± 4.8
|
< 0.001
|
|
Physical activity (MET-h/week)
|
33.0 (14.0–77.3)
|
21.4 (9.7–47.6)
|
23.6 (10.0–43.7)
|
< 0.001
|
|
Current smokers (%)
|
63 (15.3)
|
51 (12.4)
|
37 (9.0)
|
0.021
|
|
Education Level (graduated), (%)
|
129 (31.3)
|
108 (26.3)
|
78 (19.0)
|
< 0.001
|
|
Hypertension, n (%)
|
46 (11.2)
|
58 (14.1)
|
67 (16.3)
|
0.079
|
|
Diabetes, n (%)
|
23 (5.6)
|
30 (7.3)
|
41 (10.0)
|
0.051
|
|
Biochemical data
|
|
Fasting serum insulin(mU/mL)
|
7.27 ± 4.32
|
8.59 ± 4.00
|
11.72 ± 7.24
|
< 0.001
|
|
Fasting blood sugar (mmol/l)
|
4.97 ± 1.33
|
5.1 ± 1.33
|
5.33 ± 1.53
|
< 0.001
|
|
HOMA-IR
|
1.35 (0.95–1.93)
|
1.76 (1.21–2.40)
|
2.29 (1.59–3.51)
|
< 0.001
|
|
HOMA-B
|
105.7 (73.9–149.2)
|
120.0 (81.8–167.1)
|
146.0 (90.6–196.8)
|
< 0.001
|
|
HOMA-S
|
83.6 ± 46.7
|
66.8 ± 42.7
|
49.9 ± 29.5
|
< 0.001
|
|
Hyperinsulinemia, n (%)
|
69 (16.7)
|
113 (27.5)
|
204 (49.6)
|
< 0.001
|
|
Insulin resistance, n (%)
|
104 (25.2)
|
157 (38.2)
|
247 (60.1)
|
< 0.001
|
|
Insulin insensitivity, n (%)
|
104 (25.2)
|
158 (38.4)
|
248 (60.3)
|
< 0.001
|
|
β-cell dysfunction, n (%)
|
109 (26.5)
|
88 (21.4)
|
77 (18.7)
|
0.028
|
|
Nutrient Intake
|
|
Energy(Kcal/d)
|
2202 ± 689
|
2224 ± 688
|
2302 ± 757
|
0.041
|
|
Carbohydrate(% of energy)
|
59.0 ± 7.0
|
58.4 ± 6.8
|
56.2 ± 7.7
|
< 0.001
|
|
Protein(% of energy)
|
13.5 ± 2.1
|
13.7 ± 2.5
|
13.7 ± 2.5
|
0.348
|
|
Fat(% of energy)
|
30.2 ± 6.6
|
30.4 ± 6.7
|
32.6 ± 7.7
|
< 0.001
|
|
Food groups
|
|
Low-fat dairy (serving/d)
|
1.08 ± 0.90
|
0.97 ± 0.81
|
1.01 ± 0.80
|
0.297
|
|
High-fat dairy (serving/d)
|
1.34 ± 1.04
|
1.09 ± 0.69
|
1.06 ± 0.73
|
< 0.001
|
|
Refined grain(serving/d)
|
5.17 ± 3.73
|
5.25 ± 3.96
|
5.34 ± 3.56
|
0.524
|
|
Red and processed meat(serving/d)
|
0.59 ± 0.43
|
0.80 ± 0.61
|
1.08 ± 1.00
|
< 0.001
|
|
Fruits(serving/d)
|
3.51 ± 2.75
|
3.33 ± 2.79
|
3.13 ± 2.37
|
0.041
|
|
Vegetables(serving/d)
|
2.88 ± 1.97
|
2.94 ± 2.07
|
3.07 ± 2.18
|
0.197
|
|
Insulin scores
|
|
EDIH
|
0.09 (0.02–0.19)
|
0.15 (0.06–0.27)
|
0.20 (0.08–0.44)
|
< 0.001
|
|
ELIH
|
1.06 ± 0.12
|
1.34 ± 0.06
|
1.70 ± 0.20
|
< 0.001
|
