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Table 1 Baseline characteristics of the study population according to the meal frequency

From: Association of meal frequency with metabolic syndrome in Korean adults: from the Korea National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey (KNHANES)

 

Male

Female

MF ≤ 2

(n = 784)

MF3

(n = 4387)

P

MF ≤ 2

(n = 1169)

MF3

(n = 6049)

P

Anthropometric parameters

 Age (years)

36.70 (0.45)

48.35 (0.32)

< 0.0001

39.45 (0.48)

49.76 (0.31)

< 0.0001

 WC (cm)

84.88 (0.47)

84.08 (0.19)

0.1119

76.39 (0.41)

78.73 (0.21)

< 0.0001

 BMI (kg/m2)

24.60 (0.17)

23.94 (0.06)

0.0003

22.97 (0.17)

23.43 (0.07)

0.0111

 SBP (mmHg)

118.31 (0.65)

120.49 (0.31)

0.0018

111.39 (0.52)

117.02 (0.35)

< 0.0001

 DBP (mmHg)

78.93 (0.52)

78.36 (0.25)

0.3175

72.22 (0.34)

73.51 (0.17)

0.0004

 Economic status (income)

  

< 0.0001

   

 Low (%)

3.5 (0.59)

15.0 (0.68)

 

12.3 (1.19)

29.9 (0.94)

 

 Middle-low (%)

6.5 (0.97)

11.6 (0.61)

 

9.9 (1.19)

10.6 (0.52)

 

 Middle-high (%)

44.9 (2.15)

38.8 (0.98)

 

41.2 (1.99)

31.9 (0.87)

 

 High (%)

45.1 (2.16)

34.5 (1.04)

 

36.6 (1.89)

27.6 (0.99)

 

 Highest education level

  

0.0700

  

0.0074

 ≤ Elementary school (%)

29.6 (2.25)

24.7 (0.91)

 

27.9 (1.77)

26.1 (0.85)

 

 Middle school (%)

26.4 (1.90)

26.0 (0.93)

 

26.9 (1.65)

24.3 (0.72)

 

 High school (%)

20.8 (1.81)

25.6 (0.87)

 

26.6 (1.84)

25.2 (0.74)

 

 ≥ College (%)

23.2 (1.91)

23.6 (0.90)

 

18.7 (1.49)

24.4 (0.84)

 

 Alcohol intake, n (%)

79.3 (1.74)

72.7 (0.86)

0.0006

50.5 (1.74)

35.6 (0.87)

< 0.0001

 Current smoking, n (%)

60.5 (2.03)

37.6 (0.94)

< 0.0001

13.2 (1.44)

3.2 (0.32)

< 0.0001

 Physical activity, n (%)

9.1 (1.23)

10.1 (0.61)

0.4602

7.4 (0.91)

8.7 (0.47)

0.1608

Biochemical metabolic parameters

 FPG (mg/dL)

94.73 (0.63)

99.93 (0.42)

< 0.0001

93.80 (0.76)

95.71 (0.35)

0.0220

 T-cholesterol (mg/dL)

190.77 (1.62)

186.98 (0.73)

0.0318

186.39 (1.29)

190.42 (0.59)

0.0049

 Triglyceride (mg/dL)

150.55 (5.67)

154.03 (2.30)

0.5660

107.63 (2.94)

114.61 (1.30)

0.0255

 HDL-C (mg/dL)

49.45 (0.46)

49.47 (0.25)

0.9670

56.94 (0.43)

54.75 (0.22)

< 0.0001

 LDL-C (mg/dL)

115.74 (2.30)

113.96 (1.13)

0.4896

109.79 (2.21)

114.09 (1.12)

0.0926

 HbA1C (%)

5.62 (0.03)

5.85 (0.02)

< 0.0001

5.60 (0.03)

5.78 (0.02)

< 0.0001

 Insulin

10.85 (0.38)

10.23 (0.17)

0.1340

10.51 (0.28)

10.38 (0.14)

0.6805

 HOMA-IR

2.59 (0.12)

2.56 (0.05)

0.8071

2.47 (0.08)

2.50 (0.05)

0.7380

Nutrient intakes

 Total energy (kcal)

2306.73 (45.82)

2519.23 (19.08)

< 0.0001

1569.86 (24.17)

1782.80 (12.14)

< 0.0001

 Carbohydrate (g/day)

321.21 (5.13)

388.40 (2.58)

< 0.0001

246.92 (3.77)

308.24 (1.99)

< 0.0001

 Protein (g/day)

88.09 (2.53)

91.76 (0.96)

0.1662

57.52 (1.11)

63.54 (0.62)

< 0.0001

 Fat (g/day)

57.09 (1.81)

52.22 (0.86)

0.0154

37.66 (1.02)

33.90 (0.48)

0.0004

  1. Values are N, mean (SE) or N, percentage (SE) unless otherwise indicated
  2. MF meal frequency, WC waist circumference, BMI body mass index, SBP systolic blood pressure, DBP diastolic blood pressure, FPG fasting plasma glucose, T-cholesterol total cholesterol, HDL-C high density lipoprotein-cholesterol, LDL-C low density lipoprotein-cholesterol, BUN blood urea nitrogen, AST aspartate aminotransferase, ALT alanine aminotransferase, HOMA-IR homeostasis model assessment-insulin resistance